A validation study to analyze the reliability of center of pressure data in static posturography in dogs.

Introduction: Center of pressure (COP) parameters are frequently assessed to analyze movement disorders in humans and animals. Methodological discrepancies are a major concern when evaluating conflicting study results. This study aimed to assess the inter-observer reliability and test-retest reliability of body COP parameters including mediolateral and craniocaudal sway, total length, average speed and support surface in healthy dogs during quiet standing on a pressure plate. Additionally, it sought to determine the minimum number of trials and the shortest duration necessary for accurate COP assessment. Materials and methods: Twelve clinically healthy dogs underwent three repeated trials, which were analyzed by three independent observers to evaluate inter-observer reliability. Test-retest reliability was assessed across the three trials per dog, each lasting 20 seconds (s). Selected 20 s measurements were analyzed in six different ways: 1 × 20 s, 1 × 15 s, 2 × 10 s, 4 × 5 s, 10 × 2 s, and 20 × 1 s. Results: Results demonstrated excellent inter-observer reliability (ICC ≥ 0.93) for all COP parameters. However, only 5 s, 10 s, and 15 s measurements achieved the reliability threshold (ICC ≥ 0.60) for all evaluated parameters. Discussion: The shortest repeatable durations were obtained from either two 5 s measurements or a single 10 s measurement. Most importantly, statistically significant differences were observed between the different measurement durations, which underlines the need to standardize measurement times in COP analysis. The results of this study aid scientists in implementing standardized methods, thereby easing comparisons across studies and enhancing the reliability and validity of research findings in veterinary medicine.

Effect of Vision and Surface Slope on Postural Sway in Healthy Adults: A Prospective Cohort Study.

Postural stability requires an interaction between cognitive, perceptual, sensory, and motor functions. Thus, impairment in any of these systems may affect postural balance. This study assessed the effect of visual input and surface slope on postural stability. The study was conducted on healthy participants, 11 females and 11 males who were 24-34 years of age. They were asked to perform still upright bipedal standing on flat and +/-20° sloped surfaces with eyes open (EO) and closed (EC). Six center of pressure (COP) parameters were measured by posturography. A significant relationship was observed between COP parameters, standing conditions, and body mass index. Gender had no significant effect on the COP. The loss of visual input within each standing condition did not affect the COP parameters. In contrast, differences were observed between standing on a flat surface and uphill with EC and between standing on a flat surface and downhill with EC and EO. When the participants were standing on inclined surfaces, the loss of vision significantly increased the postural instability. Young healthy adults demonstrated the greatest difficulty in standing uphill with EC. This was followed by standing downhill with EC and standing downhill with EO.

External mechanical perturbations challenge postural stability in dogs.

This study aimed to explore the effect of external mechanical perturbations on postural stability (PS) in dogs using the body center of pressure (COP). Thirteen sound adult dogs were included in this study. PS was tested during quiet standing on a pressure measurement plate. The conditions included a standard standing measurement and external mechanical perturbations conducted using six settings on a motorized training platform with different intensities of speed and amplitude. Measurement conditions were compared using linear mixed-effects models, followed by multiple comparisons using Sidak's alpha correction procedure. Compared with the standing measurement, external mechanical perturbations resulted in a significant increase in almost all COP parameters, indicating a challenge for the PS. Furthermore, an increase in amplitude had a greater effect than an increase in speed, whereas the combination of the highest intensities of amplitude and speed was not well tolerated by the dogs. The mediolateral COP displacement was significantly greater than the craniocaudal COP displacement during standing measurement and conditions with a small amplitude, whereas no significant difference was observed during settings with an increased amplitude. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate the effects of a balance training device in dogs. Therefore, the intensity of the training programs on motorized platforms or similar devices can be controlled by the wobbling amplitude of the platform.

Temporomandibular joint biomechanics and equine incisor occlusal plane maintenance.

In equine dentistry, the physiological incisor occlusal surface is visually perceived as a plane with a distinct inclination to the head's coronal plane, extending rostro-ventrally to caudo-dorsally. To better understand the formation of this inclined plane and its connection to dental wear, we investigated the hypothesis that it arises from masticatory movements and the considerable distance between mandibular articular heads and the incisor occlusal surfaces, acting as the three points of support for the mandibles. Leveraging data from a large-scale clinical study involving static and dynamic orthodontic measurements in horses, we approximated the mandibular movement range where incisor occlusion and dental wear occur. By introducing and testing a segment coordinate system, we explored possible angular deviations from the occlusal plane caused by mandibular roll and pitch rotations during two lateral mandibular movement patterns, protrusion and retrusion. Theoretical biomechanical calculations and simulations confirmed the visual perception of the incisor occlusal surface as a plane. To further examine our assumptions, we employed a simple mechanical simulator to assess incisor normal occlusion and provoked malocclusions (diagonal, smile, and frown bite) by modifying temporomandibular joint (TMJ) movement patterns. The results from clinical investigations were corroborated by both the theoretical analysis and mechanical simulations, strengthening our understanding of the biomechanical basis behind the physiological incisor occlusal plane maintenance in horses. These findings have significant implications for equine dental health and contribute to a thorough understanding of TMJ dynamics.

3D printed plates based on generative design biomechanically outperform manual digital fitting and conventional systems printed in photopolymers in bridging mandibular bone defects of critical size in dogs.

Conventional plate osteosynthesis of critical-sized bone defects in canine mandibles can fail to restore former functionality and stability due to adaption limits. Three-dimensional (3D) printed patient-specific implants are becoming increasingly popular as these can be customized to avoid critical structures, achieve perfect alignment to individual bone contours, and may provide better stability. Using a 3D surface model for the mandible, four plate designs were created and evaluated for their properties to stabilize a defined 30 mm critical-size bone defect. Design-1 was manually designed, and further shape optimized using Autodesk ® Fusion 360 (ADF360) and finite element analysis (FE) to generate Design-2. Design-4 was created with the generative design (GD) function from ADF360 using preplaced screw terminals and loading conditions as boundaries. A 12-hole reconstruction titanium locking plate (LP) (2.4/3.0 mm) was also tested, which was scanned, converted to a STL file and 3D printed (Design-3). Each design was 3D printed from a photopolymer resin (VPW) and a photopolymer resin in combination with a thermoplastic elastomer (VPWT) and loaded in cantilever bending using a customized servo-hydraulic mechanical testing system; n = 5 repetitions each. No material defects pre- or post-failure testing were found in the printed mandibles and screws. Plate fractures were most often observed in similar locations, depending on the design. Design-4 has 2.8-3.6 times ultimate strength compared to other plates, even though only 40% more volume was used. Maximum load capacities did not differ significantly from those of the other three designs. All plate types, except D3, were 35% stronger when made of VPW, compared to VPWT. VPWT D3 plates were only 6% stronger. Generative design is faster and easier to handle than optimizing manually designed plates using FE to create customized implants with maximum load-bearing capacity and minimum material requirements. Although guidelines for selecting appropriate outcomes and subsequent refinements to the optimized design are still needed, this may represent a straightforward approach to implementing additive manufacturing in individualized surgical care. The aim of this work is to analyze different design techniques, which can later be used for the development of implants made of biocompatible materials.

Evaluation of an Accelerometer-Based Device for Testing the Softness of Bedding Materials Used for Livestock.

Lying is a high priority behavior for dairy cows. As the quality of cubicles can influence their lying time, the interest in finding objective methods to assess the quality of floors has increased substantially over recent decades. This study aimed to evaluate a technical device for measuring elastic properties of floors for the application to bedding materials for cows. Ten different floor types were used: horse manure, recycled manure solids, bark mulch, sand, sawdust, and three different rubber mats. Horse manure and bark mulch were additionally tested with chopped straw as a top layer. Two devices of the same kind and two examiners were available for performing comparative measurements. Regression analyses and an ANOVA were conducted to compare the devices, examiners, and different surfaces. Most of the floors differed significantly from each other. Sawdust was the softest material, followed by sand and recycled manure solids. The agreement between the devices (Lin's concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) > 0.99, Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (rS) = 0.99) and examiners (CCC = 0.99, rS = 0.99) was almost perfect. These findings indicate that this device can be used as a new method for assessing the softness of bedding materials for dairy cows objectively.

Center of pressure and ground reaction forces in Labrador and Golden Retrievers with and without hip dysplasia at 4, 8, and 12 months of age.

Canine hip dysplasia (CHD) is a common orthopedic disease. Owing to the importance of CHD in affected dogs, both clinically and for their use in breeding or work, increasing attention is being given to early diagnosis. Therefore, early clinical and radiological examination of young animals is increasingly in demand, whereas common CHD screening according to the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) is usually performed at the age of 12 months or even older in Europe. One way to objectively evaluate gait pattern is to measure the ground reaction forces (GRFs) and center of pressure (COP). In this study, we used a pressure plate to evaluate the GRF and COP parameters for 32 Labrador Retrievers and 17 Golden Retrievers at 4, 8, and 12 months of age. The dogs also underwent radiological examination of the hip joints following the FCI rules at the age of at least 12 months, which were grouped as sound (FCI grade A or B) and diseased (FCI grade C or worse). The results revealed significantly higher COP values in both breeds in the diseased limb groups at any measurement point during walking, with the most pronounced results obtained at 8 months of age. Furthermore, COP values during walking were significantly higher at 4 months than at 8 and 12 months in both the sound and diseased limb groups, indicating an increased stability of the gait pattern. Except for COP-Speed, the values of all COP parameters were higher during walking than during trotting at 4 months of age (i.e., COP-Speed was higher when trotting), indicating that the 4-beat gait in walk is more difficult to control for puppies than the 2-beat gait in trot. Overall, our results support the early evaluation of CHD in growing animals using non-invasive methods.

Comparison of Extracapsular Stabilization Techniques Using an Ultrasonically Implanted Absorbable Bone Anchor (Weldix) after Cranial Cruciate Ligament Rupture in Cats-An In Vitro Study.

BACKGROUND: This study evaluated joint stability after surgical repair of cranial cruciate ligament (CrCL)-deficient stifle joints in cats using a novel absorbable polylactide bone anchor in an ex vivo model. METHODS: Thirty-six hindlimbs from cats with intact (Gi group) and transected CrCLs were treated with fabellotibial suture alone (GFW group), suture combined with an absorbable polylactide bone anchor (GWD group), or suture combined with a nonabsorbable bone anchor (GFT group), positioned in a limb press with predefined joint angles (stifle joint: 120 ± 5°; hock joint: 120 ± 5°) and loaded with 10%, 20%, and 30% of body mass (BM). Predefined points were measured on lateral radiographs and with a coordinate measurement machine. Distances on radiographs (mm) were measured and angles (°) were calculated to represent the craniocaudal movement and the internal rotation of the tibia. RESULTS: There were no differences for craniocaudal movement between Gi and GFW or GFT, but for GWD regarding angle measurement at 30% BM. For internal rotation, there was no significant difference between Gi and GFW or GWD, but for GFT. CONCLUSION: The used absorbable polylactide bone-anchor was able to stabilize the stifle joint regarding internal rotation and craniocaudal movement as calculated from distance measurements.

Maneuverability of the Scope and Instruments within Three Different Single-Incision Laparoscopic Ports: An Experimental Pilot Study.

Single-port access systems (SPASs) are currently used in human and veterinary surgeries. However, they pose technical challenges, such as instrument crowding, intra- and extracorporeal instrument collision, and reduced maneuverability. Studies comparing the maneuverability of the scopes and instruments in different SPASs are lacking. This study aimed to compare the maneuverability of three different SPASs: the Covidien SILS-port, Storz Endocone, and glove port. A clear acrylic box with artificial skin placed at the bottom was used to mimic the abdominal wall and cavity. The three SPASs were placed from below, and a 10-mm endoscope and 5-mm instrument were introduced. A motion analysis system consisting of 18 cameras and motion analysis software were used to track the movement of the endoscope and instrument, to determine the volume of the cone-shaped, three-dimensional figures over which movement was possible, with higher values indicating greater maneuverability. The Mann-Whitney U test was used for the analysis. The maneuverability of the endoscope alone was significantly higher in the glove port system than in the other two SPASs. When inserting an additional instrument, the maneuverability significantly decreased in the SILS-port and Endocone, but not in the glove port. The highest maneuverability overall was found in the glove port.

Muscle Fibre Architecture of Thoracic and Lumbar Longissimus Dorsi Muscle in the Horse.

As the longissimus dorsi muscle is the largest muscle in the equine back, it has great influence on the stability of the spine and facilitates proper locomotion. The longissimus muscle provides support to the saddle and rider and thereby influences performance in the horse. Muscular dysfunction has been associated with back disorders and decline of performance. In general, muscle function is determined by its specific intramuscular architecture. However, only limited three-dimensional metrical data are available for the inner organisation of the equine longissimus dorsi muscle. Therefore, we aimed at investigating the inner architecure of the equine longissimus. The thoracic and lumbar longissimus muscles of five formalin-fixed cadaveric horse backs of different ages and body types were dissected layerwise from cranial to caudal. Three-dimensional coordinates along individual muscle fibre bundles were recorded using a digitisation tool (MicroScribe®), to capture their origin, insertion and general orientation. Together with skeletal data from computed tomography (CT) scans, 3D models were created using imaging software (Amira). For further analysis, the muscle was divided into functional compartments during preparation and morphometric parameters, such as the muscle fascicle length, pennation angles to the sagittal and horizontal planes, muscle volume and the physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA), were determined. Fascicle length showed the highest values in the thoracic region and decreased from cranial to caudal, with the cranial lumbar compartment showing about 75% of cranial fascicle length, while in most caudal compartments, fascicle length was less than 50% of the fascicle length in thoracic compartments. The pennation angles to the horizontal plane show that there are differences between compartments. In most cranial compartments, fascicles almost run parallel to the horizontal plane (mean angle 0°), while in the caudal compartment, the angles increase up to a mean angle of 38°. Pennation angles to the sagittal plane varied not only between compartments but also within compartments. While in the thoracic compartments, the fascicles run nearly parallel to the spine, in the caudal compartments, the mean angles range from 0-22°. The muscle volume ranged from 1350 cm3 to 4700 cm3 depending on body size. The PCSA ranged from 219 cm2 to 700 cm2 depending on the muscle volume and mean fascicle length. In addition to predictable individual differences in size parameters, there are obvious systemic differences within the muscle architecture along the longissimus muscle which may affect its contraction behaviour. The obtained muscle data lay the anatomical basis for a specific biomechanical model of the longissimus muscle, to simulate muscle function under varying conditions and in comparison to other species.

Pressure-Volume Curve during Capnoperitoneum in Cats.

Laparoscopy is a growing field in veterinary medicine, although guidelines are lacking. The objective of this study was to evaluate the pressure-volume curve during capnoperitoneum in cats. A total of 59 female cats were scheduled for routine laparoscopy. Pressure and volume data were recorded and processed, and the yield point of the curve was calculated using a method based on a capacitor discharging function. For the remaining 40 cats, a linear-like pressure-volume curve was observed until a yield point with a mean cutoff pressure (COP) of 6.44 ± 1.7 mmHg (SD) (range, 2.72-13.00 mmHg) and a mean cutoff volume (COV) of 387 ± 144.35 mL (SD) (range, 178.84-968.43 mL) was reached. The mean mL/kg CO2 value in cats was 208 ± 34.69 mL/kg (range, 100.00-288.46 mL/kg). The COV correlated with COP and body weight but not with body condition score (BCS). COP correlated only with the COV. This study suggests that feline patients have a pressure-volume curve similar to that of canine patients, and the same pressure limit recommendations can be used for both species. After a yield point of 6.44 mmHg is reached, the increment in volume decreases exponentially as the intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) increases.

Comparison of a novel extracapsular suture technique with a standard fabellotibial suture technique for cranial cruciate ligament repair using a custom-made limb-press model in cats.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of our study was to compare the standard fabellotibial suture with Mini TightRope fixation for the treatment of a cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) rupture using a feline custom-made limb press. METHODS: Cadaveric hindlimbs of 10 cats were inserted in the limb press at predefined joint angles and loads of 10% and 30% body weight (BW) were applied. Mediolateral radiographs were taken and three-dimensional coordinates were recorded using a microscribe digitiser, with intact and transected CCLs and after either fabellotibial suture or Mini TightRope fixation were performed. Different distances and angles from radiographs or microscribe coordinates were analysed. RESULTS: Radiographic distances from the femoral condyle to the cranial edge of the tibia (X1-X2) were higher in CCL-deficient stifles than in intact stifles at 10% and 30% BW loads. All fabellotibial sutures and Mini TightRope fixations neutralised excessive cranial tibial thrust. A significant difference in the distance between the patella and tibial tuberosity (D2) was observed between CCL-deficient limbs and Mini TightRope-fixed limbs at 10% BW load (P <0.04). A significant difference in the distance between the tibial tuberosity and lateral collateral ligament of the femur (D3) was observed between the intact and transected CCLs on the left legs at 10% BW load (P <0.003) and on both legs at 30% BW load (P <0.002). Furthermore, we observed significant differences between CCL-deficient left legs and Mini TightRope-treated legs at 10% BW load (P <0.003). With regard to fabellotibial suture-treated legs, we observed significant differences between transected limbs and fixed limbs at 30% BW load (P <0.004). W1 (craniocaudal angle) and W2 (mediolateral angle) showed significant differences between intact and transected CCLs and between transected and fixed limbs at 30% BW load (P <0.004). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Fixation of CCL-deficient stifles with lateral fabellotibial suture, as well as Mini TightRope tightened with a 20 N load, produces good biomechanical stability, as detected via radiographic assessment.

Bit type exerts an influence on self-controlled rein tension in unridden horses.

Bit configuration and acting rein forces play a crucial role in oral health and comfort of ridden horses. Although it is a big animal welfare issue, dynamic response of horses to different bits has yet not been thoroughly investigated. This convenience sample experimental study describes a model to overcome the almost uncontrollable influence of riders on rein tension and evaluates self-controlled maximum side rein tension of ten sound horses randomly bitted with a double-jointed (DJS) and a version of a Mullen mouth snaffle-bit under unridden conditions. Horses were exercised at walk and trot on a horizontal treadmill wearing custom made force-sensing resistors (FSR) equipped to side reins. FSR were synchronized with a camera-based motion analysis system providing information on amplitudes and temporal occurrence of self-controlled maximum side rein tensile forces during different phases of separated motion cycles. The DJS exhibited larger side rein tension, indicating higher bit contact. Constant temporal occurrence of monophasic maxima at walk and biphasic maxima at trot could be observed in both bits. Within the limitations of this study, application of FSR linked to side reins in unridden horses may provide a promising tool when studying subjective response of horses to different bits.

Age-related changes of tendon fibril micro-morphology and gene expression.

Aging is hypothesized to be associated with changes in tendon matrix composition which may lead to alteration of tendon material properties and hence propensity to injury. Altered gene expression may offer insights into disease pathophysiology and thus open new perspectives toward designing pathophysiology-driven therapeutics. Therefore, the current study aimed at identifying naturally occurring differences in tendon micro-morphology and gene expression of newborn, young and old horses. Age-related differences in the distribution pattern of tendon fibril thickness and in the expression of the tendon relevant genes collagen type 1 (Col1), Col3, Col5, tenascin-C, decorin, tenomodulin, versican, scleraxis and cartilage oligomeric matrix protein were investigated. A qualitative and quantitative gene expression and collagen fibril diameter analysis was performed for the most frequently injured equine tendon, the superficial digital flexor tendon, in comparison with the deep digital flexor tendon. Most analyzed genes (Col1, Col3, Col5, tenascin-C, tenomodulin, scleraxis) were expressed at a higher level in foals (age ≤ 6 months) than in horses of 2.75 years (age at which flexor tendons become mature in structure) and older, decorin expression increased with age. Decorin was previously reported to inhibit the lateral fusion of collagen fibrils, causing a thinner fibril diameter with increased decorin concentration. The results of this study suggested that reduction of tendon fibril diameters commonly seen in equine tendons with increasing age might be a natural age-related phenomenon leading to greater fibril surface areas with increased fibrillar interaction and reduced sliding at the fascicular/fibrillar interface and hence a stiffer interfascicular/interfibrillar matrix. This may be a potential reason for the higher propensity to tendinopathies with increasing age.

Ultrasound as a Tool to Study Muscle-Tendon Functions during Locomotion: A Systematic Review of Applications.

Movement science investigating muscle and tendon functions during locomotion utilizes commercial ultrasound imagers built for medical applications. These limit biomechanics research due to their form factor, range of view, and spatio-temporal resolution. This review systematically investigates the technical aspects of applying ultrasound as a research tool to investigate human and animal locomotion. It provides an overview on the ultrasound systems used and of their operating parameters. We present measured fascicle velocities and discuss the results with respect to operating frame rates during recording. Furthermore, we derive why muscle and tendon functions should be recorded with a frame rate of at least 150 Hz and a range of view of 250 mm. Moreover, we analyze why and how the development of better ultrasound observation devices at the hierarchical level of muscles and tendons can support biomechanics research. Additionally, we present recent technological advances and their possible application. We provide a list of recommendations for the development of a more advanced ultrasound sensor system class targeting biomechanical applications. Looking to the future, mobile, ultrafast ultrasound hardware technologies create immense opportunities to expand the existing knowledge of human and animal movement.

Finite Element Modelling Simulated Meniscus Translocation and Deformation during Locomotion of the Equine Stifle.

We developed a finite element model (FEM) of the equine stifle joint to identify pressure peaks and simulate translocation and deformation of the menisci. A series of sectional magnetic resonance images (1.5 T) of the stifle joint of a 23 year old Shetland pony gelding served as basis for image segmentation. Based on the 3D polygon models of femur, tibia, articular cartilages, menisci, collateral ligaments and the meniscotibial ligaments, an FEM model was generated. Tissue material properties were assigned based on data from human (Open knee(s) project) and bovine femoro-tibial joint available in the literature. The FEM model was tested across a range of motion of approximately 30°. Pressure load was overall higher in the lateral meniscus than in the medial. Accordingly, the simulation showed higher translocation and deformation in the lateral compared to the medial meniscus. The results encourage further refinement of this model for studying loading patterns on menisci and articular cartilages as well as the resulting mechanical stress in the subchondral bone (femur and tibia). A functional FEM model can not only help identify segments in the stifle which are predisposed to injury, but also to better understand the progression of certain stifle disorders, simulate treatment/surgery effects and to optimize implant/transplant properties.

Structure-Function relationships of equine menisci.

Meniscal pathologies are among the most common injuries of the femorotibial joint in both human and equine patients. Pathological forces and ensuing injuries of the cranial horn of the equine medial meniscus are considered analogous to those observed in the human posterior medial horn. Biomechanical properties of human menisci are site- and depth- specific. However, the influence of equine meniscus topography and composition on its biomechanical properties is yet unknown. A better understanding of equine meniscus composition and biomechanics could advance not only veterinary therapies for meniscus degeneration or injuries, but also further substantiate the horse as suitable translational animal model for (human) meniscus tissue engineering. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the composition and structure of the equine knee meniscus in a site- and age-specific manner and their relationship with potential site-specific biomechanical properties. The meniscus architecture was investigated histologically. Biomechanical testing included evaluation of the shore hardness (SH), stiffness and energy loss of the menisci. The SH was found to be subjected to both age and site-specific changes, with an overall higher SH of the tibial meniscus surface and increase in SH with age. Stiffness and energy loss showed neither site nor age related significant differences. The macroscopic and histologic similarities between equine and human menisci described in this study, support continued research in this field.

The effects of Kinesio Taping on the trajectory of the forelimb and the muscle activity of the Musculus brachiocephalicus and the Musculus extensor carpi radialis in horses.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION: The present study aimed to investigate the effects of Kinesio Taping on the trajectory of the forelimb and the muscle activity of the M. brachiocephalicus and the M. extensor carpi radialis in horses. 19 horses and ponies of different breeds (body weight: 496±117 kg), gender (8 mares, 10 geldings and 3 stallions) and ages (14.9±6.9 years old) were analysed without Kinesio Tape ("no tape"), with Kinesio Tape (muscle facilitation application on both muscles of both sides, "with tape") and immediately after Kinesio Taping ("post tape") through kinematic motion analysis and surface electromyography on a treadmill at the walk (speed: 1.5±0.1 m/s) and trot (speed: 3.1±0.3 m/s). RESULTS: The results of the surface electromyography (maximum muscle activity at the walk and trot) and the kinematic motion analysis (maximum stride length and maximum height of the forelimbs flight arc at the walk and trot) showed that there were no significant differences between "no tape", "with tape" and "post tape". CONCLUSION: To sum up, Kinesio Taping on the M. brachiocephalicus and the M. extensor carpi radialis does not affect (in a positive or negative manner) the trajectory of the forelimb or the muscle activity of the M. brachiocephalicus and the M. extensor carpi radialis in horses.

Surface Electromyography of the Vastus Lateralis, Biceps Femoris, and Gluteus Medius Muscle in Sound Dogs During Walking and Specific Physiotherapeutic Exercises.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the muscle activity patterns of the vastus lateralis (VL), biceps femoris (BF), and gluteus medius (GM) during walking and specific physiotherapeutic exercises in clinically sound, healthy dogs without lameness. STUDY DESIGN: Observational study. ANIMALS: Clinically sound dogs (n = 10). METHODS: Surface electromyography was performed during walking and exercises (11% incline and decline, walking over cavaletti) within a defined study area. The maximal, minimal, and mean muscle potentials reflecting activity during each motion cycle were compared among the exercises. RESULTS: During swing phase, maximal VL activity was higher during cavaletti walking compared with walking over ground or incline. Cavaletti walking had an earlier occurrence of the maximum VL activity than did walking over ground or decline. Compared with walking over ground, incline walking had higher minimal GM activity during the 1st half of stance phase and an earlier occurrence of maximal activity during the 2nd half of stance phase. Cavaletti walking had earlier maximal GM activity in swing phase than did walking over ground. Differences between decline and incline walking were seen in all 3 phases of the motion cycle; namely, higher minimal and mean activities occurred during incline walking, and higher maximum activity occurred in the 1st half of stance phase during incline walking. Compared with decline walking, cavaletti walking showed higher minimal and mean activities in the 2nd half of stance phase and higher maximal and mean activities in swing phase. CONCLUSION: Cavaletti and incline walking exercises increases the VL and GM muscle activity.